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Territory of Kazakhstan has come to be mastered by man nearly a million years ago. As early as the age of Lower Paleolith the ancient man settled down on these Karatau lands fit for normal life, rich with game and wild fruit. It is there that they have found ancient settlements of Stone Age. By and by, in the centuries of Middle and Upper Paleolith the man came to master Central and Eastern Kazakhstan and Mangyshlak area.

As have been shown by excavations of the neolythic settlement Botay in the North Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan constitutes the area of horse-mastering (breeding) and that of formation of nomad civilizations. Archeologists revealed dwellings, numerous hand-made articles of stone and ivory which present the ancient history and archeology of Kazakhstan in the Stone epoch in an altogether new way.

As early as the Bronze Age, some four millenia ago, the territory of Kazakhstan was inhabited by tribes of the so called Andron and Begazy-Dandybay culture. They were engaged in farming and cattle-breeding, they were fine warriors who handled combat chariots marvellously. To this day we can see images of chariots drawn on rocks where ancient people would arrange their tribal temples and sanctuaries with the firmament as their natural cover. On the surfaces of black cliffs burnt with the sun people would chisel out scenes of dances, images of sun-headed deities, mighty camels and bulls as impersonations of ancient gods.

Burial mounds of noble warriors scattered all throughout Kazakh steppes are known for magnificient size of mounds and burial vaults proper. Particularly famous are such necropoles in the steppes of Sary-Arka and Tagiskent in the Transaral area. People of that epoch were not only fine warriors, shepherds and farmers but also skilled metallurgists. They would take bronze and manufacture axes, knives, daggers and various decorations thereof.

It were they who initiated development of copper which is being practiced to this day - they are Zhezkazgan and Sayak copper quarries of today. Ancient people lived in large settlements and ancient towns surrounded with walls and fosses. These towns were inhabited with warriors and craftsmen, priests and farmers. These tribes lived on the territory of Kazakhstan for about a thousand years - from the XVIIth century BC to IX-VIII centuries AD,

Later on they were ousted by Saks. Such was the name given to this tribe by ancient Persians. The Chinese called them "se" whereas Greeks chose to call them Scythians. They were essentially nomads, semi-nomads and farmers. Yet, first and foremost, they were excellent horsemen. In fact Saks were the first ever horsemen in the world to master arrow-shooting at full tilt.

In VI-II centuries BC Saks set up their first state with its centre in the Zhetysu (Semirechje) in South-East Kazakhstan. Kings of Saks were at the same time high priests. Saks had written language and mythology of their own, they were known for their well developed art of world standard labelled in research papers as "animal-styled art". Respective subjects were represented by predators and herbivourous animals and the struggle there between. Sheer masterpieces made of gold and bronze serve as worthy exhibits of best museums of the world.

In the Issyk burial mound that harboured the world-famous "Golden Man" they have found a silver bowl whose bottom bore an incription consisting of 26 characters. They have failed to read it to this day. Some think that the incription is made in one of the Iranian languages, others insist on its prothoturkic origin. The middle of the first millenium AD is a fairly important stage in the history of all Turks in general and Kazakhs in particular. The period is marked with manifest changes in ethnic media: predominant now there become Turkic tribes which chose Altai as their natural centre. Written sources of the VIth century register the term "Tyurk" which is pronounced as "Tutszyue" by the Chinese and as "Turk" by Sogdians.

Starting from the IV-th century up to the beginning of the XIII-th century the territory of Kazakhstan was the seat of West-Turkic, Tyurgesh, Karluk Kaganates, of the state made by Oguzes, Karakhanides, Kimeks and Kypchaks. All of them successively replaced one another up to the very Mongol invasion. After the invasion, i.e. in the beginning of the XIIIth century, there have shaped up uluses of the Mongol Empire of Zhuchi-Khan and Zhagatai which later gave birth to Ak-Orda, Mongolistan and finally to Kazakh Khanate. Essentially all these states were mixed economies. Tribes of cattle-breeders had farming tribes as their neighbours, steppes and cities supplemented each other. Such cities as Taraz, Otrar, Ispijab, Talkhir were set up right in the way of the Grand Silk Route which served as a reliable link joining antiquity and Middle Ages, the West and the East: Japan, Korea and China with Central Asia, Iran, the State of Seldzhuks, Rus, Byzantium, France and Italy.

On the whole the process of formation of the Kazakh ethnic national group came to completion in XIV-XV centuries.

By virtue of many ethnopolitical and economic factors on the territory of Kazakhstan there formed three ethnoterritorial associations - Senior, Middle and Junior Juzes. Division into juzes was the actual reflection of the complex process - formation of the Kazakh ethnic national group, it left its characteristic stamp on local cultural and every-day specifics of its development.

Kazakh Khanate shaped up in the middle of the XVth century. Extension of estates, consolidation of statehood, active foreign policy pursued by the First Khans, particularly by Kasymkhan in early XVIth century, later on gave way to ever growing intestine wars and mass roamings-off of people.

The aggravated economic and political situation generated the issue of joining Russia, a process that lasted nearly 150 years. Abulkhair, Khan of the Junior Juz exasperated by the ongoing weakening of the Kazakh Khanate as a result of the exhausting war had to accept the terms of the Junior Juz"s joining Russia. Efforts of the "opposition" headed by Sultan Baraka to impede the negotiations and frustrate formalization of the act of the Junior Juz" joining Russia ended in a failure and on October 10, 1731 a part of the assembly of Kazakh elders supported the decision.

Political and economic status of Kazakhstan in the middle and the end of the XVIIIth century features the following: aggravation of internal discord in the Junior juz; expansion of economic relations with Russia; development of barter trade; aggravation of the land issue; first moves in colonial policies of tsarism in the agrarian issue. To step up colonization of the territory they introduced a Russian system of administration which resulted in a protest on the part of the Kazakh population which - subsequently - expressed itself in a national-liberation struggle of Kazakhs within the Russian empire. In sum, the Kazakh people raised the banner of freedom more than 300 times. Starting from the second half of the XIXth century Kazakhstan represents a completely shaped up colony of the Russian Empire.

Late in the XIXth century colonial specifics of the agrarian policy of tsarism brought about a gradual shift in the proportion of nomadic and settled population. There have shaped up new forms of economies: a settled cattle-breeding one and a settled farming one. Social differentiation of the Kazakh society becomes ever more pronounced. A part of economies comes to be envolved in market relations. Now quite typical is the engagement of impoverished Kazakhs in various industries that emerged in Kazakhstan in the last quarter of the XIXth century. Local merchants initiated a new practice of trade - they started arranging fairs. Over the last decade of the XIXth century they built some 482 km of railway lines. Development of transit trade is also underway. In context of the Kuldzha Treaty of 1851 trade links with China come to be more intensive. In commercial systems there appear elements of usury and private entrepreneurship.

Colonial oppression weighed hard on the living standards of the Kazakh people. Ever growing taxes and duties, land withdrawal generate aggravation of internal contradictions in the Kazakh countryside, a crisis in cattlebreeding economies.

The war of 1918 crowns the national-liberation movement of Kazakhs within the Russian Empire. Victorious February revolution in Russia brought about an overthrow of the tsarist government. It was a period of dual power in the country: the power of the proletariat and peasantry represented by the Soviets of Workers" and Soldiers" Deputies and the power of bourgeoisie and land-lords represented by the Provisional Government.

Upon the overthrow of tsarism, in Kazakhstan too, they started organizing Soviets of Workers" and Soldiers" Deputies. It went on hand in hand with the emergence of bodies of bourgeois power: all sorts of "executive committees", "civil committees", regional or district commissars appointed by the Provisional Government.

The end of the 20s-30s is marked with an upsurge of peasant uprisings to counter forced collectivization which brought about mass deaths of people. "Kazakhstani tragedy" - such is the name of this man-made disaster in history.

Kazakhstan is situated in Central Asia, deep in the Eurasian continent. Territory: The territory of Kazakhstan covers 2,724,900 km2. It is the second largest country in the CIS and the world's 9th largest after Russia, China, the USA, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India and Australia. Kazakhstan is bigger than the twelve countries of the European Union.

• Land boundaries: Kazakhstan has borders with China, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and the Russian Federation. In total the border covers 12,187 km. Kazakhstan stretches over 3,000 km (and two time zones) from the low lands of the Volga in the West to the foothills of the Altai mountains in the East and for some 2,000 km from the west Siberian lowland in the North to the desert of Kyzylkum and the Tien Shan mountain range in the South. The northernmost point in Kazakhstan - 55'26'' NL - is level with the south of the East-European plain and the south of the British Isles (Moscow). As to the most southerly point - 40'56'' NL - is in line with Trans caucasian and Mediterranean countries of Southern Europe (Madrid, Istanbul and Baku).

• Population: The population of Kazakhstan is 15m (01.01.2005) with a density of 5.5 people per 1 km2.

• Capital: The capital of Kazakhstan is Astana (since December 10, 1997) with a population of 528,000 people. Administrative and Territorial Structure: Kazakhstan has 14 administrative regions, 84 cities, 159 districts, 241 towns and 2,042 aul (rural villages). Language: Kazakh is the official language. State institutions and local administration also use Russian.

• Currency: The currency is the Tenge which is equal to 100 tyins. It was introduced on 15th November 1993. More about Kazakh currency...

• National Symbols: Flag of Kazakhstan, Emblem of Kazakhstan.

• Natural Resources: Steppes occupy some 26% of the territory, deserts (44%) and semi-deserts (14%) with forests occupying 21,000,000 ha.

The flora and fauna include 155 species of mammals, 480 species of birds, 150 species of fish and about 250 species of medicinal plants including the very rare Santonica that grows nowhere else but in the South of Kazakhstan.

Kazakhstan is rich in commercial minerals including the world's largest reserves of chromium, vanadium, bismuth and fluorine as well as leading deposits of iron, chrome, lead, zinc, tungsten, molybdenum, phosphorite, copper, potassium and cadmium.

There are nearly 160 deposits of oil and gas including one of the largest deposits of the world, the Tenghiz field. These contain about 20,000,000,000 barrels of oil and 700,000,000 ton of gas condensate, reserves equivalent to the resources of the whole of the Western Europe of a value of about USD 4 bn.

Kazakhstan has coal reserves 160 million tons in 155 deposits including 10 coal fields of bituminous and brown coal.

The country's iron ore resources (containing 50-60% of pure iron) are some of the best in the world.

Kazakhstan has the world's second richest phosphorite reserves (after Russia) the phosphorite deposits of Zhanatas and Karatau are second to none in the world in terms of thickness and quality.

Kazakhstan is also a world-leading producer of aluminum. There are extremely good reserves of copper ore. The Zhezkazgan ore deposits are the second largest in the world by potential.

Kazakhstan has enormous resources of salt and construction materials. Prospected deposits are a good basis to develop mining, coal-mining, metallurgy, oil-and-gas and chemical industries.

Kazakhstan's share in the world output of commercial minerals and products of procession (according to estimates of the Union Bank of Switzerland) in the days of the late USSR amounted to the following: Beryllium - 24%, Zinc - 7%, Tantalum - 33%, Titanium - 26%, Chrome - 27%, Copper - 3%, Barite - 7%, Molybdenum - 3%, Lead - 7%, Bauxite - 1%, Uranium -14%, Manganese - 5%, Silver - 6%, Iron ore - 2%, Tungsten - 12%, Gold - 1%.

• Climate: The remoteness of the country from oceans and the vastness of its territory determine its climatic conditions. The climate is a harsh continental one with average temperature in January between - 19 and -4o C and in July between + 19 and +26o C. In winter the temperature may go down to - 45o C and in summer up to + 30o C.

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In general, all foreign nationals are required to have business or tourist visas to enter Kazakhstan. To obtain a Kazakhstan visa foreign citizens should apply to a Kazakhstan diplomatic/consular institution in their country of residence.

1. Copy of the first two pages of their passport a valid passport (or international travel document),

2. a copy of their Kazakhstan visa support (invitation letter) with a notification of their visa support number by the DCS of the MFA (or the original individual invitation issued by the Police),

3. the completed visa application form (pdf) and

4. 1 passport-size photo;

5. Fee, payable on collection of visa

6. For 5 days transit visas, the visa of the destination country and onward ticket (or a reservation) are required.

The passport should not expire earlier than six months after the validity term of the requested visa. Other necessary documents will be determined by the consul at the time of application.

Visas are issued within 7 calendar days from the day of presenting all documents. Documents are accepted with a visa support letter from the Diplomatic-consular service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

In order to get single entry official, private, tourist or business visa to Kazakhstan at the Embassies of Kazakhstan, nationals of the following countries do not need letter of invitation (Kazakhstan visa support): Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Great Britain, Greece, Denmark, Italy, Ireland, Iceland, Germany, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Malaysia, Monaco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Portugal, Singapore, the USA, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, France, the Republic of Korea.

Citizens of the following countries do not need entry Kazakhstan visa to visit Kazakhstan: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Ukraine.

Where to apply for Kazakhstan Visa?

1. You can apply for the Kazakhstan visa outside of Kazakhstan where Kazakhstan Embassy or Consulate exist

2. Nationalities that do not need the letter of invitation can also obtain a tourist visa on arrival at consular posts of the MFA at Astana, Almaty, Atyrau, Uralsk and Ust-Kamenogorsk airports with special applications of travel agencies to the DCS of the MFA.

Types of Kazakhstan Visa

1. Diplomatic Kazakhstan visa: issued to holders of diplomatic passports and in some instances, when the issue of a diplomatic visa has been recognized expedient. Diplomatic visas are registered without levy of consular fees.

2. Official Kazakhstan visa: issued to personnel of foreign diplomatic and other representations and international organizations, who are not considered diplomatic personnel, and also to foreign citizens and persons without citizenship traveling on business, invited by government bodies of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

3. Investor Kazakhstan visa: issued to genuine investors - managers and representatives of managerial staff of major foreign companies, operating on the Kazakhstani market or who have genuine plans to develop business projects.

4. Unless stated otherwise by an international treaty or agreement of the Republic of Kazakhstan Work visas are issued upon provision of a permission for foreign labor recruitment and other documents.

5. Business Kazakhstan visa: issued to foreign citizens and persons without citizenship traveling to Kazakhstan for business (to attend business negotiations, forums, market research, etc.) upon application of non-governmental legal entities, registered on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

6. Tourist Kazakhstan visa: issued upon approval of a local travel agency's application, licenses to operate as such.

7. Study visa: issued with permission of the immigration police upon application of educational institutions.

8. Visas for medical treatment are issued to foreigners and persons without citizenship traveling to Kazakhstan for treatment, medical checks, consultations and similar reasons upon application of the relevant institutions and organizations confirming the character of the invitation.

9. Visas for permanent residence are issued upon provision of documents stipulated by the legislation.

10. Transit Kazakhstan visa: issued upon provision of a visa valid to enter the country of destination and relevant tickets with confirmation of departure date from the transfer point on the territory of Kazakhstan, no later than 5 days from the moment of arrival to the port or station in Kazakhstan.