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The territory of Tajikistan has been continuously inhabited since the early Stone Age. The first Central Asian states of Sogdia and Bactria in the first millennium BC, included portions of Tajikistan. The territory was Persian-controlled from the 6th century BC, until conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BC. Much of Tajikistan was included in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 3rd century BC, and after displaced by the Tochari tribes who invaded Sogdia a century later. The Kushana kingdom was established in the first centuries of the Christian era, when a number of cities were established, and agriculture and commerce grew. In the 5th and 6th centuries, parts of Tajikistan were conquered by nomadic tribes, the Chionites and, later, the Ephthalites.

At the end of the 6th century the large Ephthalite empire was displaced by the Eastern Turkic Kaganate. Arabs conquered the area in the 8th century, introducing Islam. Later in the 9th century they were displaced by the Samanides, who encouraged the development of trade and of material culture. From the 10th to the 13th centuries a number of kingdoms succeeded one another in Central Asia; among the ones which included parts of Tajikistan were the Ghaznavids, the Karakhanids, the Ghorids, the Karakitai, and the Khwarazmites.

In 1219–1221 Genghiz Khan"s troops conquered the entire area, destroying many cities. Tajikistan became part of the lands given to Genghiz Khan"s son, Chagatai. In the 14th century Timur (Tamerlane) created a large empire, with its capital in Samarkand. In the 16th century Tajikistan was conquered by the Sheibanids, who had their capital in Bukhara. Portions of territory were included later in the Ashtarkhanid state and then in the Kokand Khanate, which emerged in the Fergana Valley in the mid-18th century. Present-day Tajikistan was split between the Khanates of Bukhara and Kokand in the 18th and 19th centuries.

In 1863, Russia asserted a right to exercise dominance in Central Asia, and began the military conquest of the khanates. Bukhara and Samarkand were incorporated into Russia in 1868. Kokand was eliminated in 1876, and the border with Afghanistan was set by accord with England in 1895. At that point, part of Tajikistan was in the Emirate of Bukhara, part was in Turkestan. When the Tsar"s draft call-up of 1916 was announced, rebellions broke out all over Central Asia, including in Tajikistan. These were suppressed, at great loss of life.

Northern Tajikistan was conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1918, who extended control to the rest of the country when Bukhara was captured, in 1920. Muslim guerrilla warfare termed the Basmachi Rebellion was finally suppressed in 1924. Tajikistan was established as an autonomous republic within the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. The republic became a full Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929.

Border delineations in Central Asia were very arbitrary. For several hundred years educated Central Asians had used Persian and Turkic languages essentially equally, so that separation into Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and Persian-speaking Tajiks, as if to create separate nationalities, was primarily administrative. Bukhara and Samarkand, the major Tajik cities, were included in Uzbekistan, while Tajikistan was left only with smaller cities, and little arable land. People were forced to assume one nationality or another.

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev replaced longtime republic leader Rakhmon Nabiyev with Kakhar Makhkamov, whose control never penetrated to the most local levels. Riots in February 1990 exposed his weaknesses, and encouraged a proliferation of political parties and groups. When the August 1991 Soviet coup attempt came, Makhkamov was the only republic leader to welcome it. When the coup failed, Makhkamov was forced to resign, and Nabiyev returned to power.

The republic declared independence on 9 September 1991, and presidential elections were hotly contested 27 October 1991. Nabiyev used communist control of the media and cells in the workplace to influence the election. Despite this influence, his opponent Davlat Khudonazarov, a popular filmmaker, received more than 30% of the vote. Opposition to Nabiyev continued, however, resulting in massive demonstrations and the formation of a national guard by Nabiyev and militias by the oppositionists. In April 1992, demonstrators for and against Nabiyev took over two public squares in Dushanbe, about a mile apart. Clashes between the two caused several deaths, and tensions mounted. In May, the Russian garrison in Dushanbe stepped in to mediate tensions, brokering a compromise that called for Nabiyev to form a coalition government in which one-third of the ministerial posts would go to oppositionists. Nabiyev named his supporter, Akbarsho Iskandarov, the new legislative speaker to help form a coalition government, and brought token democrats and Islamists into the government, including Kazi-kolon Khojiakbar Turajonzoda, the senior Muslim cleric in the republic.

Civil disorder grew throughout summer 1992. In August 1992, Nabiyev was seized at gunpoint and forced to resign, and Iskandarov assumed control of the government. By this time full civil war had erupted, with thousands of casualties. In November, Iskandarov gave up his efforts to govern, and Uzbekistan and Russia joined in the efforts by hard-liners to drive the Iskandarov government and its supporters out of the country, mostly into neighboring Afghanistan. The rump Supreme Soviet, dominated by hard-liners, met in Khojand, and Imomali Rakhmonov became the leader. Rakhmonov, a Kulyabi, was a former collective farm chairman linked to a major hard-line warlord. Kulyabi and Khojenti hard-liners, assisted by Uzbekistan and Russia, launched a successful counteroffensive that by the end of 1992 had resulted in 20,000-40,000 casualties and up to 350,000 refugees or displaced persons, about 80,000 of whom fled to Afghanistan.

In 1993, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) authorized "peacekeeping" in Tajikistan under the auspices of its Collective Peacekeeping Forces (CPF) treaty to protect what Russia terms "CIS borders." CPF consisted of Russia"s 201st Rifle Division, based in Tajikistan, and token Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek troops (the Kyrgyz and Uzbek troops pulled out in 1998–99). Russian media reported in late 1999 that there were about 20,000 CPF, border, and other Russian troops in Tajikistan. The commander of the CPF troops in August 1999 stated that the role of his forces had largely shifted to the delivery of humanitarian cargos, clearing mines, and giving medical assistance. Nonetheless, plans to withdraw the CPF have not been announced, perhaps because in April 1999, Russia and Tajikistan signed a basing agreement for the 25-year presence of Russian troops.

After Tajik government and opposition emissaries agreed to a cease-fire in September 1994, the UNSC formally established a UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) in December 1994 with a mandate to monitor the cease-fire, later expanded to investigate cease-fire violations, monitor the demobilization of opposition fighters, assist ex-combatants to integrate into society, and offer advice for holding elections. The UN reported in late 1999 that UNMOT comprised 167 civilian staff and 37 military observers. The mission successfully accomplished its assigned tasks and on 15 May 2000 its mandate was terminated.

In November 1994, Rakhmanov held presidential elections in an attempt to legitimize his government. The main Tajik opposition groups boycotted this election and a constitutional referendum because they had no say in drawing up the draft constitution and would not be allowed to field their own candidates. Only one candidate besides Rakhmanov was permitted to run, Abdumalik Abdullojanov, a prominent politician in the northern Leninabad region and a former Tajik prime minister. Rakhmanov was elected president by a wide margin and his constitution was overwhelmingly approved. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) declined to send monitors because it viewed the electoral process as not meeting its standards. Elections to a new 181-member legislature took place in February 1995. Four parties were allowed to compete, but restrictive nomination procedures ensured that about 40% of candidates ran unopposed. The election excluded virtually all opposition parties, and Western groups refused to monitor the "seriously flawed" vote.

In December 1996, the two sides agreed to set up a National Reconciliation Commission (NRC), an executive body composed equally of government and opposition emissaries. On June 27, 1997, Rakhmanov and United Tajik Opposition (UTO) leader Seyed Abdullo Nuri signed the comprehensive peace agreement, under which Rakhmanov remained president but 30% of ministerial posts were allocated to the opposition and Nuri headed the NRC.

As part of the peace process, in early September 1999, the Tajik legislature set presidential elections for 6 November 1999. Only after a popular referendum approved constitutional changes in late September, however, were the opposition Islamic Renaissance and Democratic parties legalized and allowed to gather 100,000 signatures to register nominees. Nominees complained that they did not have enough time to gather signatures and that Rakhmanov"s appointees at the local level blocked signature-gathering. The Central Electoral Commission (CEC), controlled by Rakhmanov, then pronounced him the only candidate. This prompted the resignation of opposition members of the NRC and calls for an electoral boycott. To provide the gloss of a multi-candidate race, the CEC "registered" IRP nominee Davlat Usmon, though he refused to run. The CEC announced that 98% of 2.85 million Tajiks had turned out and 96.9% had voted for Rakhmanov, and only 2% for Usmon. Seeking to avert renewed civil war, Nuri agreed on 5 November to respect the outcome of the election and rejoin the NRC in return for pledges by Rakhmanov to allow fair legislative elections that were held in March 2000.

On 26 March 2000, Tajikistan disbanded its National Reconciliation Commission (NRC), created to implement 1997 peace accords ending the civil war. The accords set legislative elections held in March as the culmination of the peace process. Former rebel Seyed Abdullo Nuri, chairman of the NRC, called for quick settlement of remaining peace issues. The UN Security Council on 21 March praised the legislative elections and work of the NRC, and withdrew UN observers in May 2000.

Although benchmarks of the peace process have been largely met, including the return of refugees, demilitarization of rebel forces, legalization of rebel parties, and the holding of presidential and legislative elections, stability in Tajikistan remains fragile.

The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), a radical Islamic organization seeking to establish an Islamic state in Central Asia, carried out operations in Tajikistan in the summer of 2000. Tajik authorities increased the number of customs checkpoints and deployed additional military troops to prevent the infiltration of Islamic militants. In addition to the IMU, the Hizb-ut-Tahrir ("Freedom Party"), another radical Islamic organization, operates in the country, although unlike the IMU, it is non-violent. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, and its subsequent military campaign in Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime and al-Qaeda forces, all radical Islamic groups in the Central Asian nations were linked to terrorism. Tajikistan became a strategic partner in the US-led anti-terrorism campaign when it offered the use of its airports. Leaders of Tajikistan"s opposition Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) have vigorously denied Rakhmanov"s claim that it promotes extremism, and accuse him of using the US-led campaign against terrorism to neutralize his mainstream Islamic political opponents.

In April 2001, Rakhmanov and Russian President Vladimir Putin agreed on the establishment of a 3,000-man tactical air base in Tajikistan. Russia announced it would increase its border troops along the Tajik-Afghan border. It is Russia"s goal to establish a rapid reaction military presence in Central Asia.

Tajikistan is a Central Asian which is not such a major center of tourism as for example Turkey . But it does not mean that there are fewer tourists wishing to come there to spend a vacation. They are mainly attracted by the exotic of this country, its customs and traditions which have been preserved untouched in its secluded corners since ancient times. If you go up in the mountains you will have a chance to find really small villages where live unique nationalities - the descendants of Alexander the Great who conquered this territory. In this way you'll be able to experience a spirit of antiquity and ancient history. Tourists travel to Tajikistan in order to get indelible impressions from fabulous and even wild virgin nature. The Pamir, the Tien Shan and Fan Mountains are regarded as "resorts" of Tajikistan . These fantastic places are attractive to those who prefer active travels with a touch of extreme to boring beach vacation.

There is a lot to see there indeed: snowy mountain caps on the background of dazzling blue sky, green fertile valleys with blooming gardens, rough mountain streams bubbling with white foam in narrow gorges. Even in America it is hard to find such quick flowing rivers with rapids. Have you thought of rafting there? Adrenaline won't go away for the next year. And the canyons?! Sharp, enormous, forbidden. Even a Hollywood movie cannot show those. The fans of rafting and mountaineering consider Tajikistan an ideal place for those who are up to active and dynamic vacations.

In Tajikistan there are many historical cities and monuments which any tourist will look at with awe. Another irresistible attraction is the national cuisine - a special topic for conversation. Tajik cuisine is famous worldwide! Moreover, there you will be treated with the most delicious fruit and vegetables grown not in artificial hothouses but in natural fertile Tajik soil - juicy and sweet as honey.

Hospitable Tajik people never say good bye to their guests without treating them with some gifts. You will take home with you not only bright impressions but also loads of hand crafted souvenirs from ceramics, wood , glass, fabrics. Local craftsmen have ke pt the secrets of their arts for many generations.

So as you can see Tajikistan is a unique country. Th ere is nothing there that is fake, made on purpose or borrowed from other cultures. The civilization has not entangled this country in its cobweb yet . You won't find noisy mega polises , highways, annoying neon advertis ements . Mother Nature reigns there. And if you want to meet her on your own - welcome to Tajikistan !

Tajikistan General Information

Area: 143 , 100 square kilometers .

Population: about 6.5 million

State language: Tajik

Capital city: Dushanbe

The State Holiday: Day of Independence - September 9

Currency: Somoni. More about Tajik currency...

Symbolics: Flag of Tajikistan, Emblem of Tajikistan

Nationalities: Tajiks (64.9 %), Uzbeks (25%), Russian s (3.5 %)

Climate: sharp continental

Natural resources: aluminum, coal, oil, gas, iron, zinc, antimony, mercury, gold, tin, tungsten, boron , carbonates, fluorite, precious and semiprecious stones Major cities: Khujand, Kurgan - Tyube, Khorog, Kulyab , Penjikent Major industries: mining metallurgy, water-power engineering, textile and clothing industries.

Major agricultural crops: cotton, fruits , silk, grains , tobacco.

State System Republic of Tajikistan is a unitary and multinational state. It was founded on September 9, 1991 when the declaration on independence of the country was adopted . Tajikistan is a member of the Organization of E conomic Cooperation set up by Iran , Turkey and Pakistan . Since 1992 Tajikistan has been a member of the United Nations and OSCE. T he country is governed by the P resident and Parliament . The legislat ive power belongs to the Parliament - Oliy Mazhlisi , the executive power - to the P resident. The president in coordination with the Parliament forms the government. The Constitution of the Republic ensures the rights and freedom s of its citizens.

Tajikistan landmarks are primarily its 2,500-year-old cities, the unique ancient monuments which have survived on its territory, the samples of ancient architecture as well as surprising beauty of the nature: reserves, the highest mountains, snow-white glaciers, green blossoming fertile valleys. Mountaineering in Tajikistan

It is the most natural kind of active vacation in the country, 90% of which is occupied with high mount ain s. Annually groups of climbers conquer little-known tops. Climbers receive the spiciest impressions from ascent s in the mount ains of Karavshin . Conque ring the steep granite rocks cut by vertical cracks brings indelible emotions due to maxim um adrenaline rush . T he more difficulties there are the sweeter the victory is. The same can be said about Turkestan R idge. This is a dream of true romantics since the ridge is practically impregnable. The only way to reach it is by helicopter.

Not less popular is trekking in Tajikistan . What is more tempting than a fascinating walk around picturesque places of a remote district, exploration of gaping precipices, gorges and passes as well as wild life patches.

• Mountains

Pamir Mountan Range

Fan Mountains

Mountain District Karavshin

• Cities to Travel in Tajikistan

Kurgan Tube 12 km to the northeast of the city - the remains of Buddhist monastery (7th - 8th centuries) (sanctuaries, cells, sculptures, wall paintings). Penjikent.

Major cultural center Sogda (6th - 8th centuries). The ancient pre-Muslim settlement with the remains of fortifications, temples, dwelling houses, sculptures as well as the monuments of the Stone Age: Aktanga canopy (neolith); Sarazm village (Bronze Age). Khorog.

Botanical garden at 2,320 m above the sea level. Hissar, Ura-Tube, Khujand - ancient mosques, minarets, mausoleums of Muslim times, some ancient fortresses and ruins. The remains of ancient fortresses in the vicinities of Ishkashim and other places along the Panj river.

Chil'dukhtaron Valley In the south of Tajikistan there is the most ancient landmark which is poetically named Chil'dukhtaron (the Valley of Forty Girls). According to the legend the 40 boulders standing one after another used to be 40 pretty girls. But when the cruel invaders came there with the intention to make the girls their concubines, the girls begged the Allah to turn them into silent stones. Since then the valley has became one of the most interesting places of interest in Tajikistan and local residents piously believing in the legend decorate their self-denying stone "sisters" with bands and flowers each spring. Nature - Sites to Travel in Tajikistan

• The highest mounts of the Pamir, including the Peak of Ismail Samani (Peak of Communism (7,495 m) are great places for mountaineering experts.

• High-Mountain Murghab Center - located over 3,500 m above the sea level.

• High-Mountain Lake Karakul lies over 3,900 m above the sea level near Osh-Khorugh route. High-Mountain Lake Sarez, formed in the beginning of the last century as a result of the earthquake in the center of Gorno-Badakshan.

• Hot springs near Garm (Garm-Chashma)

• Reserves "Zeravshan", "Iskandarkul", "Kushavlisoi", natural boundaries: Archamaidan,

Rosrovut, "Stone Pillars", Zindon gorge.

• Petroglyphs in Tajikistan

Pamir area is the richest in rock drawings in Tajikistan. In total the archeologists have found more than 50 places. The most known are those nearby Ishkashim village. Some drawings are at the height of 3,200-3,300 m above the sea level. The drawings are either chipped out on the surfaces of granite rocks by means of a stone or scratched with a knife (the later ones).

The scenes basically depict hunting mountain goats, yaks, deer - the running hunters with bows and dogs.

The average size of the drawings is 10-20 cm in length. The largest of them is 80 cm, the smallest - 6 cm.

Very often petroglyphs show the images of rhubobs, the favorite musical instrument of local residents. All in all thereу have been found about 300 of them. Nowhere else are there so many of those. The reason is probably the national folklore of Pamir people where rhubob was a personification of a human being.

30 km from Khorog in the end of the mountain gorge there is Vybist Dara area also famous for its collection of petroglyphs. There have been discovered four groups of rock drawings. Unlike the majority of hunting drawings found in Pamir the ones found in Vybist Dara show humans and ornaments.

The most ancient group of the drawings is dated the second half of 1,000 B.C. A lot of petroglyphs are in the Eastern Pamir near the remains of Bazar-Dara, the ancient city of miners. "Chipped out" there are the images of two-wheeled horsed chariots, mountain goats, an archer dressed in a peaked cap. The images are dated the Bronze Age. Reserves to Travel in Tajikistan

• Tajik National Park

It is one of the most surprising corners of the world. There in uniform scenery merge severe mountains and green valleys, raging mountain streams and crystal-clear lakes, alpine meadows and mountains. The flora there is rich and unique. But besides remarkable flora the park has the rich fauna including very rare endangered species. Some National Park corners have preserved primeval natural beauty. Snow leopards, bears, argali, wild mountain goats, marmots and other rare animals and birds of prey have found their home there. It is their own world and they feel themselves comfortable. So do all visitors of the park; having experienced the natural harmony reigning there they simply do not want to leave its territory.

• Ramitsky Reserve

It is located 70 kilometers northeast of Dushanbe. For wild life fans this place is just what they need. The place near the reserve in the Sardaimien and Sorbo interfluve is also unique and interesting. Very few people know about it and tourists rarely visit it. But if you manage to get to this heavenly sunny spot with dark blue transparent rivers, mountain woods, bright sub alpine flowers, waterfalls, snowfields, little-known passes you can might consider yourselves extremely lucky.

Nurek Hydroelectric Power Station and its water basin The largest Central Asian hydroelectric power station included into the top 30 most powerful hydro stations of the world was entered into the book of Guinness Records as having the highest dam in the world. It is located on the Vakhsh, one of the greatest rivers of the region, 75 km from Dushanbe. The area of the water basin is 98 sq. km. A boat trip on the Nurek water basin will give you an unforgettable opportunity to admire the magnificent mountain scenery with the man-made miracle in the middle of it.

Tajikistan: Visa and Passport Requirements

Passports: Passport valid for at least three months longer than the validity of the requested visa required by all nationals referred to in the chart above.

Passport Note:

Passport and visa regulations for all the CIS states are liable to change at short notice. All travellers are advised to contact the nearest Tajikistan Embassy or Consulate for up-to-date details. Countries where Tajikistan has diplomatic representation currently include Austria, China (PR), Germany, Iran and Turkey.

Visas:

Required by all nationals referred to in the chart above. British nationals are no longer able to obtain Tajik visas on arrival at Dunshanbe Airport and must apply to an embassy in person.

Note: Nationals not referred to in the chart above are advised to contact the embassy to check visa requirements.

Visa Note: An invitation is no longer necessary to apply for a tourist visas. Special visas must be obtained by those wishing to visit the Gorno-Babakhshan region (the Pamir Mountains). Tourists can apply for a letter of invitation from the State National Travel Agency, 14 Pushkin Street, Dushanbe 734 095, Tajikistan (tel/fax: (372) 231 401). Some other areas, such as Nurek Hydroelectric Power Station or Lake Zorkul, also require special permission to visit. (a) It is no longer necessary for tourists staying no longer than 30 days to register with the authorities within 72 hours of arrival. (b) An HIV test is required by all foreigners planning to stay longer than 90 days. Foreign tests may be acceptable. Types and costs:

Up to 14 days: (single £60, double £65, multiple £70). Up to 30 days: (single £80, double £90, multiple £100). Up to 60 days: (single £90, double £100, multiple £150). Up to 90 days: (single £150, double £160, multiple £200). Fees apply to UK embassy.

Validity:

• Dependent on purpose of trip.
• Application to:
• Consular Service, Embassy of Tajikistan
• Application Requirements:

For Tourist Visa flight booking or travel itinerary should be attached to the application form and a valid passport together with a photocopy, which should have at least two blank pages for a visa. Your passport must be valid for at least three months longer than the validity of the requested visa.